Nuamah JK, Sasangohar F, Erranguntla M, Mehta RK. (2019). The past, present and future of opioid withdrawal assessment: A scoping review of scales and technologies. BMC Medical Informatics and Decision Making. 19(113). doi: 10.1186/s12911-019-0834-8
Researchers conducted a scoping literature review for methods of assessing opioid withdrawal symptoms to describe current approaches to monitoring opioid withdrawal symptoms and identify areas for innovation. Researchers identified 21 articles, 18 of which used opioid withdrawal scales to monitor opioid withdrawal symptoms and 3 used wearable sensors to monitor physiological indicators of opioid intake. Of the articles describing opioid withdrawal scales, 8 described clinician-administered scales, 8 described patient-report scales, and 2 described scales that combined clinician administration and patient report. Scales ranged from 10 items to 550 items that were completed using Likert scales (n=10), binary rating systems (n=5), weighted scales (n=2), or analogue scales (n=1). The most common clinician-observed symptoms of withdrawal measured were teary eyes and yawning (n=15) and the most common patient-reported symptoms were joint or muscle aches (n=11). All three studies that described technologies for monitoring opioid intake used sensors on the wrist to track electrodermal activity, skin temperature, and movement. Researchers note that research has yet to explore the potential of technology to monitor opioid withdrawal in real time and capture signs and symptoms that cannot be accurately assessed by clinician-administered or patient-reported scales.